A Consortium of Liberal Arts Colleges to Promote Asian Studies
ASIANetwork Freeman Foundation
1998 Student-Faculty Fellows Program
for Collaborative Research in Asia
Project Abstracts
Life of Sister Ingeborg Nystul, the First Augustana Synod Lutheran Deaconess to Serve in China
Jane Tiedge,'99 and Prof. Marsha Smith, Augustana College
Jane Tiedge, '99 (History and Women's Studies) and Dr. Martha Smith (Sociology and Women's Studies) spent June 14 to July 21 in Asia researching the life of Sr. Ingeborg Nystul. Our purpose was threefold: (A) to locate, explore, and photograph places that Sr. Ingeborg visited and lived as well as other Augustana Synod holdings, (B) to locate and interview elderly Chinese who remembered her, and (C) to gather first-hand knowledge about life in China, particularly what is happening among contemporary Christian Chinese in Henan, Hubei, and Shaanxi provinces.
We were particularly successful in locating and photographing sites where Sr. Ingeborg lived in Wuhan, Luoyang, Baoji, Zhengzhou and especially Jigongshan where no westerners have visited since 1948. We also were able to contact and interview a number of seniors who did remember Sr. Ingeborg quite well. Finally, we heard a great deal as well as experienced Chinese Christians' sense of their current situations. In many ways, we realized that there is a growing revival of Christianity in China. There were large numbers of people involved at every Church setting. We also realized that the further away we were from the central government, the more open Chinese Christians were - not only in terms o buildings and activities, but also in terms of how they treated us. We chose to visit on an informal basis only, not notifying the Religious Affiliation Bureau in any of the communities we traveled to. Since leaving China we have remained in contact with some of the people we interviewed as far as we can assess, no one has encountered any problems with our informal visits.
Issues of Gender and Sexuality in the Works of Contemporary Chinese Women Writers
Mara Anderson, '00 and Prof. Hong Jiang, The Colorado College
Mara Anderson and I went to China for a student-faculty research trip this summer under the support of the Freeman Foundation. We interviewed a total of six contemporary Chinese women writers there and did a productive research in Shanghai, Beijing and Hong Kong. Among these six women writers, three of them began to publish in either the later 1970s or early 1980s; the others began to write in the late 1980s. Most of the writers we interviewed seem still not very interested in the Western feminist theories though one could easily find strong feminist voices in their talks and works. They preferred to figure out their own roles and values through their own experiences in a rapidly changing society rather than just to copy the Western ideas. We really enjoyed meeting with each of these various but equally strong-willed women writers and would like to further discuss the issues of gender and sexuality that were raised by these writers in our future papers and presentations. We also found some possible new projects from our research in the libraries and conversations with our friends in China. Finally, we are grateful for the ASIANetwork and Freeman Foundation for providing us this great opportunity.
How and Why is Sri Lanka at the Forefront Among South Asian Nations in Solving its Population Dilemmas?
Jan Brunson, '99 and Prof. Victoria Baker, Eckerd College
This study attempts to identify the factors that contribute to Sri Lanka's record of low fertility rates. It describes the structure of national family planning programs and demographic statistics. The main focus is on the influence of women on fertility rates in the context of a small rural village: their status in the social structure, their level of education, and the contribution to subsistence through work or income. The responses of thirty married women reveal that the education of women is not a factor in this case. The high value placed on the education of their children causes them to limit the number of children they produce. Women have relatively equal status to men in the village; and in most cases they are sources of income for the family. This fact and the availability of contraceptives and sterilization allow them to control the number of offspring.
Through the research experience in Sri Lanka, I discovered how it feels to be completely immersed in a foreign culture- for example the unfamiliar language, food, living conditions, and being the only two people with white skin in sight. Professor Victoria Baker taught me some helpful tricks of the trade for travelling in a developing country and for conducting anthropological fieldwork. She also showed me how important it is to have confidence in one's abilities and in one's research. Through this experience I gained practice at doing the exact kind of research I will do at the graduate level and as a professor, and I have much to share both personally and professionally.
Reflecting on my experiences as faculty sponsor with Jan Brunson, it is clear that our learning took place on multiple dimensions. Beyond the important applied research findings, Jan was learning the fundamentals of research design, participant observation, note-taking, interviewing, data analysis, and how to cope with problems posed by an untrained interpreter. Equally important as these methodology topics, however, she was learning firsthand about the trials and rewards of doing anthropological research in remote rural setting in the developing world: how much patience and determination it takes to endure the intense heat, the danger of poisonous snakes, the inconveniences of having no water on tap nor electricity, the extremely hot and spicy curries, the primitive latrines, and the lack of privacy- but also how rewarding and humbling it is to gain the confidence and cooperation of village women, to be invited to meals in the homes of subsistence farmers, to play games with children who have no manufactured toys, and to be blessed by the single resident Buddhist monk in the nearby ancient cave temple. As a professor of anthropology it was an especially beneficial summer. Not only was I able to see my protégé on her way to becoming a superb fieldworker, but I was also able to collect data for a conference paper on ritual presented at a professional meeting in July, as well as data for a paper I will present at the American Anthropological Association meeting this fall. This project was a successful way to advance the knowledge and career opportunities of both student and faculty sponsor. We returned eager to share our Asian experiences with others and in diverse educational contexts.
Do the People of Ramakrishna Mission in Calcutta Agree or Disagree with the View of Ramakrishna Proposed by Jeff Kripal in 'Kali's Child" (1995)?
Andrew Busch, '98 and Prof. Brian Hatcher, Illinois Wesleyan University
It would be inaccurate to call my initial project, as of late September, a complete success. I had anticipated getting the reaction of people close to the Ramakrishna Mission in Calcutta to Jeff Kripal's book 'Kali's Child', which argued that the great saint was driven by homoerotic desires. The planned project was not able to work for the simple fact that I underestimated the amount of hostility that the Bengali people, especially people affiliated with the Mission, had towards Kripal and his book. Simply put, no one at the Mission would discuss the book with me, much less support or consider Dr. Kripal's argument. I found that the only people who were willing to speak with me about the book were scholars, and they were generally not open to Kripal's thesis, save for two who have been living in the West for an extended period of time. I was forced to take my research in another direction.
I have recently completed a rough draft of a paper that questions a scholar's rights and motives in using his or her own cultural constructs to analyze something that has no similar constructs. This is the case with Kripal and 'Kali's Child'. At the same time, it is a scholar's job to understand situations as best they can, and to propose the most appropriate answers they can. When scholars and the communities they study are at odds, problems tend to arise. Overall, my experience in India made me question what it means to have academic freedom, and how truth has different meanings for different people. Although the paper is not yet complete, I feel that it can be a meaningful piece of work. I certainly could not have hoped for a more meaningful or educational trip.
Survey of Buddhist Practices and Tenets of Lay Women in the Metropolitan Area of Colombo
Karen Stoll, '98 and Prof. Carol Anderson, Kalamazoo College
There are three basic areas into which my research can be organized. First is the amount of variation in Buddhist practices among perceptions of the significance of ritual to Buddhist life. Second, it appears to be the case that women are far more involved in Buddhist rituals than are men. This is common claim, and my research indicates support for this finding. The third area that I examined regards the status of women within Buddhism. The majority of women I interviewed stated that they considered women to be equal to men within Buddhism, but then qualified that statement later on in my interviews. I believe this research was successful and at the same time I realized that there is a great deal more work to be done to gain a broader understanding of women's roles within Sinhalese Buddhist life in Sri Lanka.
The projects that we undertook were rather different in nature, and there were varying degrees of success. Anderson was able to complete what she wanted to get done, although there are always more things that one wishes one could do. She found several manuscripts of the text she is working on, visited a number of temples in search of other manuscripts, and, as she half-expected, the manuscripts had long since disappeared. Nonetheless, the work had to be done and she was able to gather enough information to continue working on the project full time upon her return. She also had opportunity to do work in other areas, which was pleasantly unexpected. Stoll, too, accomplished most, but not all, of what she had planned to do.
Tibetan Women and the Feminine Principle in Dharamsala
Stacey Brown, '98 and Prof. Elisabeth Benard, University of Puget Sound
In the study of Tibetan religions, few publications exist about the roles of oracles. The most extensive one is Oracles and Demons of Tibet by Rene de Nebesky Wojkowitz. Of the two main types of oracles, which are the state oracles who advise the government and oracles who advise "ordinary" people, the former has been documented more. The only study about present oracles, which advise people, is Jose Cabezon's unpublished research about four Tibetan woman oracles that live among Tibetan communities in India. Stacey and I wanted to extend his research about Yudronma, one of these four oracles. Since she is elderly, we felt it was important to videotape her, as she became possessed by the Goddess Yudronma. We accomplished this. Also we are continuing our correspondence with her to write a brief biography about her and her role as an oracle. Having few publications about Tibetan oracles, this biography and video provide a personal account of a Tibetan woman oracle.
Role and Status of Nuns in Tibetan Buddhism
Elizabeth Noble, '99 and Prof. Joel Smith, Skidmore College
In the past, women entering into the monastic practices of Tibetan Buddhism rarely learned actual religious teachings, but rather became low status worker for either their family or the monastery. In an old saying, heard more than once, it was said, "if you want to serve the Buddha have your son become a monk, if you want a servant have your daughter become a nun." However, recently there has been a rise in the opportunities offered to nuns to engage in actual religious study and practice. We studied several nearly completed new nunneries, as well as others that are expanding, in Dharamsala and in the vicinity of Leh, the major town in Ladakh, a Himalayan region of northern India. Elizabeth stayed with nuns at Wakha nunnery and also joined some nuns at a teaching given in Nubra Valley by the distinguished abbot of Rizong monastery. Joel researched a new nunnery nearing completion in the village of Lingshed. We found that the new nunneries are being established for the sole purpose of supporting a monastic community of women devoted to religious practice, rather than manual labor. The nuns are beginning to engage in philosophy and the study of scriptures, activities that previously were reserved only for monks. They are now learning dialectics, or debating, for the first time ever, as we witnessed several times. The circumstances causing these changes are a complex interrelation among the ever increasing Western influences, reform from within Tibetan Buddhism, and a growing internal desire for better opportunities from the nuns themselves, as well as from lay women. The expanding opportunities for the Tibetan Buddhist nuns are an encouraging and exciting turn for these women; however, the road before them is long, and this is only the beginning.
Income Distribution in Shanghai: Two Chinas in Transition: From 'Iron Rice Bowl' to 'Small Comforts'
Paul Boruta, '98 and Prof. Xun Z. Pomponio, St. Olaf College
Our research for the 1998 ASIANetwork Freeman fellowship has focused on the topic of income inequality in Shanghai and its effects on economic growth in the region. Through our research we have sought to answer the questions: 'Has the gap between the rich and poor increased as a result of Shanghai's economic development?' and 'Is this inequality a significant obstacle to Shanghai's continued economic development?' The most substantial portion of our research was conducted this past June and July in Shanghai. During this time, we conducted interviews with Chinese economists and sociologists and searched local archives and in search of published income data. We also conducted individual interviews with workers and managers at state-owned, private, and joint-venture enterprises, and administered a self-designed survey to 148 workers at these enterprises. In addition, we traveled to Beijing to attend a conference of China's social security reform and to Shanghai's surrounding countryside and provinces to conduct comparative interviews and surveys.
Although our results are still a work in progress, we have been able to draw some preliminary conclusions from our research to date. We hope to expand on these conclusions as we continue our study throughout this next year, with the ultimate goal of publishing separate student and faculty papers to disseminate our findings. Our initial statistical analyses suggest that the income gap has indeed increased in Shanghai since the onset of economic reform, as evidenced by an increase in Shanghai's Gini coefficient (a measure of a relative inequality in a society) from .016 in 1980 to .134 in 1996. Data from our survey elaborates further on this growing inequality by suggesting the presence of 'hidden inequalities' not evident in Shanghai's published income data, such as inequalities between males and females, between different generations of workers, and between workers in coastal and inland regions. Generally, survey responses indicate that increasing income inequality is a serious concern among many Chinese people. Many people are angered by the fact that much of the wealth in Shanghai has been acquired through illegal means or through family connections. Others, particularly workers at China's failing state-owned enterprises, are very concerned about unemployment and are disillusioned with the results of economic reform. But although there are pockets of resentment to Shanghai's growing income inequality, most people seem to approve of the move to a merit-based economy where worker initiative is rewarded by monetary gains. Tentatively, this leads us to conclude that Shanghai's growing inequality will not necessarily become an impediment to future growth and equality, particularly if China continues to implement reform in its critical institutions and works to prevent corruption in its economic system.